Compiled by Debanjan Das & Pijush Kanti Chakraborty
CONTENTS
1.1) Religious
1.2) Ecological
2) Genesis of the eucalyptus problem
2.1) Raw material for Paper Mills
3) Historical background of eucalyptus
4) Problems associated with eucalyptus
4.1) Fragmentation of ecological corridor
4.2) Loss of biodiversity viz. indigenous medicinal plants
4.3) Reduction of natural water flow to Narmada River
4.4) Depletion of soil nutrient
4.5) Pest and Diseases
5) More on Eucalyptus Hazards
5.1) Shallow Root System
5.1.1) Invasive
5.1.2) Uprooting
5.1.3) Landscape Damage
5.2) Fire Hazard
6) Legislations and Policies
7) Earlier instance of tinkering with delicate Amarkantak ecology
8) Conclusions & Suggested Remedies
9) References
1) Importance of Amarkantak
1.1) Religious
Amarkantak hilly area, which is the birth place of holy Narmada River (Narmadakund) and mighty Sone River (Sonemuda), is regarded as sanctum sanctorum by Sanatanis/Hindus. Another important river Johilla too originates from here (Jwaleshwar Mahadev Temple). There are about 12 temples devoted to Narmada Mother Goddess. The most important is Narmada Temple built by the Bhonsles of Nagpur around the origin point of Narmada. Kalchuris constructed the Machendranath and Patleshwar temples here which are declared by Archaeological Survey of India as protected. The religious significance of this town attracts pilgrims and saints throughout the year (Tourism-Amarkantak).
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| Map : Amarkantak Hilly Range Corridor and its surroundings |
1.2) Ecological
The town of Amarkantak lying in Anuppur District, Madhya Pradesh is surrounded by a rich variety of flora with medicinal properties. The Achanakmar Wildlife Sanctuary, which is in Chattisgarh, is within 40 km from the town of Amarkantak. The lush green forest belt in Amarkantak is a part of Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve. The forests of Amarkantak are linked with the forests of Kanha National Park. Amarkantak falls on the Kanha-Achanakmar Corridor, a hilly region covered with dense forests (see Map). Kanha and Achanakmar are both conserved wildlife parks in India famous for Bengal Tigers (Wiki-Amarkantak).
The climate in Amarkantak is warm and temperate. The average temperature in Amarkantak is 21.7 °C. The average annual rainfall is 1364 mm (Climate-Data.org). Mean annual rainfall varies from 1400 mm to 1750 mm (Agarwal, Tiwari & Dubey, 1996).
2) Genesis of the eucalyptus problem
2.1) Raw material for Paper Mills
The largest paper mill in the country, Orient Paper Mill, is located in Amlai, Shahdol district very near to Amarkantak (see Map). It has a capacity of 250 tonnes of high grade paper per day; for this it consumes 450-500 tonnes of bamboo and 150-200 tonnes of hardwood daily. The mill has its wood catchments area in all the forests of Eastern M. P. Due to the increasing shortage of bamboo and hardwoods, the Forest Department has turned towards plantation of eucalyptus to be used for paper manufacture. The forests of Madhya Pradesh supply raw material for many paper manufacturing units, both inside and outside the state. The annual supply of bamboo for the year 1978-79 gives an idea of the scale of exploitation of forest resources for paper manufacture alone:-
| Sl# | Name | Tonnes |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | Orient Paper, Amlai | 103,833 |
| 2 | Bengal Paper | 30,000 |
| 3 | MP Pulp and Paper | 25,000 |
| 4 | Nepa Mills | 97,500 |
| 5 | Sirpur Mills | 8,333 |
| 6 | Orient Paper, Brijrajnagar | 8,333 |
Meanwhile, in Shahdol district bamboo stocks are exhausted. Special plantations of eucalyptus are being tried by the forest department as an alternative source for pulp (Roy et.al, 1981). The ecological implications of the effluents generated by this mill on the Son River which is flowing through Shahdol district and the resulting pollution at villages downstream are not discussed here.
3) Historical background of eucalyptus
Eucalyptus has a long history in India. It was first planted around 1790 by Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore, in his palace garden on Nandi hills near Bangalore. According to one version he received seed from Australia and introduced about 16 species (Shyam Sundar, 1984). Some 170 species, varieties and provenances of eucalyptus were tried in India (Bhatia, 1984), out of which the most outstanding and favoured has been the E. hybrid, a form of E. tereticornis known as “Mysore gum”.
Eucalyptus was first introduced in Madhya Pradesh on an experimental scale during 1965~66. Large scale plantations of eucalyptus covering an area of 45,000 ha were raised since 1966. After 1974, eucalyptus was planted only in mixtures under Social Forestry Schemes (Palanna R.M.,1996). Three species viz. Eucalyptus hybrid, E. camaldulensis, E. citriodora were commercially successful while attempting to reclaim and revegetate bauxite mined areas of BALCO, near Amarkantak and coal mined areas of Dhanpuri, Shahdol district in eastern M.P. since 1979 (Ram Prasad, 1996).
4) Problems associated with eucalyptus
4.1) Fragmentation of ecological corridor
Any change in local forest type by introduction of exotic species like eucalyptus will ecologically fragment the Kanha-Achanakmar Corridor passing through Amarkantak (see Map). As the biodiversity sustained and nurtured by thousand years of delicate ecological equilibrium between climate, flora & fauna is drastically altered by human interference in the form of Eucalyptus Plantation both by government and private parties. Different bird species adaptive to monocultured eucalypus forests are replacing traditional ones.
4.2) Loss of biodiversity viz. indigenous medicinal plants
The biodiversity of a natural forest and that of a eucalyptus plantation are not comparable. The natural ecosystems are very diverse, whilst the biodiversity of Eucalyptus plantations is limited (Group Reports,1993). Invaluable traditional medicinal plants viz. brahmi, gulbakawali, safedmusli, tejraj, bhojraj, patalkumna, kali haldi, devraj, hatahjodi, jatashankari, ashtagandha (Tourism-Amarkantak) are being lost as local forests are cleared for eucalyptus plantations.
Moreover, eucalyptus trees show allelopathic effects; they release compounds which inhibit other plant species from growing nearby (Wiki-Eucalyptus). Allelopathic effects of Eucalyptus are more prominent in areas with low rainfall i.e. less than 400 mm annually (Group Reports,1993). In Kerala & Tamil Nadu several species of bush frogs have become endangered due to encroaching of their habitats by eucalyptus plantations (ZSI,2011). This critical faunal aspect needs to be studied in Amarkantak area too.
4.3) Reduction of natural water flow to Narmada River
The homogeneous plantations of Eucalyptus are objectionable on ground of lowering the water table in their vicinity since the tree has a tremendously high transpiration rate (Roy et.al, 1981). This has already started adversely affecting the natural flow of Narmada River. Though Eucalyptus is an efficient biomass producer but as result of its fast growth and high biomass production Eucalyptus species consume more water than other, less productive species (Group Reports,1993).
4.4) Depletion of soil nutrient
When Eucalyptus is grown as a short rotation crop for high biomass production and removal, soil nutrients are depleted rapidly (Group Reports,1993).
4.5) Pest and Diseases
Termite attacks are common the Eucalyptus region. Susceptibility to this pest varies with the species. Some species such as E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis are more susceptible than others.
Corticium salmonocolor "Pink disease" is significant for some species in high rainfall areas in the Asia-Pacific Region (Group Reports,1993).
5) More on Eucalyptus Hazards
Eucalyptus trees are native to Australia, but have adapted to climates all over the world. These trees have a shallow root system, which developed as a way to survive in a harsh native environment, where accessing a limited amount of rainfall is crucial to survival. It’s this shallow root system that can make eucalyptus trees a danger.
5.1) Shallow Root System
About 90 percent of a eucalyptus tree’s roots grow in the top 12 inches of soil. This shallow root system grows rapidly, and along with a strong taproot, the lateral roots are vital to keeping a eucalyptus tree upright. A eucalyptus tree’s taproot must grow down into the soil at least 6 feet to ensure good anchorage. The lateral roots spread out for up to 100 feet to help support the rest of the tree. These lead to the following hazards (Miller R.,2012) :-
5.1.1) Invasive: Because much of the root system is in the upper layers of soil, it can absorb water and nutrients rapidly. Eucalyptus trees are heavy feeders and need an extraordinary amount of water. This often leaves nothing for nearby plants to take up. As the shallow root system expands, it invades the habitat of other species. Once it has established, it can be extremely difficult to eradicate a eucalyptus tree from the soil, because when the tree is cut down it undergoes mass-sprouting from the base and the root system and may reestablish growth.
5.1.2) Uprooting: In exposed locations, where eucalyptus trees are subjected to strong winds, a shallow root system presents a hazard to people, homes and other structures. If the root system is not well established, winds can cause the tree to sway, which loosens the soil around the root collar. This causes the shallow roots to tear and the tree may fall over. Newly planted eucalyptus will show a cone-shaped hole around the base where the soil is lost around the root collar, which indicates the tree, is at risk of uprooting.
5.1.3) Landscape Damage: The roots and rootlets of eucalyptus trees planted in a yard can grow into ditches, clog water pipes, and crack septic tanks and cisterns. The roots of eucalyptus trees planted in an urban environment can damage sidewalks, curbs and gutters. As the shallow eucalyptus roots grow and produce secondary thickening growth, they can heave up paved surfaces above and around them.
5.2) Fire Hazard
On warm days, eucalyptus forests are sometimes shrouded in a smog-like mist of vaporised volatile organic compounds (terpenoids); the Australian Blue Mountains take their name from the haze.
Eucalyptus oil is highly flammable (ignited trees have been known to explode); bushfires can travel easily through the oil-rich air of the tree crowns. Eucalypts obtain long-term fire survivability from their ability to regenerate from epicormic buds situated deep within their thick bark, or from lignotubers, or by producing serotinous fruits.
Eucalyptus forest tends to promote fire because of the volatile and highly combustible oils produced by the leaves, as well as the production of large amounts of litter which is high in phenolics, preventing its breakdown by fungi and thus accumulates as large amounts of dry, combustible fuel. Consequently, dense eucalyptus plantings may be subject to catastrophic firestorms (Wiki-Eucalyptus).
6) Legislations and Policies
The Central and State Governments took certain policy decisions regarding planting of the species in the country.
6.1) The first was the decision of the Karnataka State Government in 1984 to ban planting of eucalyptus in areas receiving a rainfall of 750 mm and above. This was because of fungal disease (Pink disease) affecting Eucalyptus hybrid in heavy rainfall areas. The State Government also removed eucalyptus from the list of species to be planted under various rural development schemes sponsored by the Government of India.
6.2) The National Forest Policy of 1988 provides that no plantations of exotic species can be taken up without the species being tested on an experimental basis. If no ill effects are noted, only then are large scale plantations permitted. Eucalyptus being an exotic species is covered under the above policy statement of the Government of India.
6.3) The Karnataka Government brought out an order during 1990 to restrict the planting of eucalyptus in the State, permitting it to be raised only in areas receiving a rainfall of between 500 mm and 750 mm. Planting is further restricted to degraded Reserved Forest and waste lands, which are barren, and that along with eucalyptus a good proportion of indigenous species be mixed.
6.4) In India, until the later part of 1980’s due to the Government policy to convert degraded natural forests into productive plantations, large areas of natural forests with miscellaneous species were cleared for planting eucalyptus in monoculture. This trend is completely reversed now and the present policy is not to clear any natural forests for plantations. In established eucalyptus plantations raised in the high rainfall zone in the past, indigenous species are allowed to come up after harvesting. In Karnataka where eucalyptus was mixed with teak in plantations after clear felling moist deciduous forests, teak is allowed to grow along with the miscellaneous species which have come up from the root stock. At present, plantations of eucalyptus are only taken up in barren areas of the dry zone (Palanna R.M.,1996).
7) Earlier instance of tinkering with delicate Amarkantak ecology
Pinus caribaea, known as tropical pine, was planted in Amarkntak in 1968 on advice of Forest Research Institute, Dehradun on the recommendations of National Agricultural Commission of India looking to the future demand of quality pulp wood. This work was undertaken under a World Bank Technical Assistance Project by clearing natural sal forests. The naturalists and environmentalists in India raised a controversy over it; ultimately the project of “Tropical Pine Plantation” was abolished (Wiki-Amarkantak).
8) Conclusions & Suggested Remedies
8.1) For more than 40 years the Amarkantak hilly area has been treated as experimental laboratory by Central & State level Forestry and Agricultural agencies to generate productive forests which will supply commercial raw materials like fuel wood, pulp within short span of time. Let them continue their experiments in arid climates of Rajasthan or Ladakh but not here.
8.2) Lakhs of eucalyptus trees have been planted and still being planted in the Amarkantak hilly area by the forest department as well as private parties to feed the insatiable businesses of man like paper mills disregarding the debilitating effect this has on very existence of other life forms so long sustained by the delicate local ecological system.
8.3) Eucalyptus cannot be eradicated easily by normal felling or cutting, because within two to three months after felling/cutting of the eucalyptus tree, multiple buds/branches grow on the cut stem and water consumption starts more vigorously in comparison with its pre felling stage. So for eradicating these dangerous species from the entire Amarkantak Hilly Range and its surroundings a new methodology needs to be urgently deliberated.
8.4) Comprehensive planning is required for long term afforestation by indigenous plants like Sal (Shorea robusta), Rudraksha (Eleocarpus ganitrus), Debdaru (Cedrus deodara or Himalayan cedar), Shisham (Dalbergia sissoo or Indian Rosewood or sisu), Arjuna (Terminalia arjuna), Peepal/Pippala (Ficus religiosa or Bodhi-tree or Ashwattha), Neem (Azadirachta indica), Imli (Tamarindus indica), Mango (Magnifera indica), Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) and traditional medicinal plants/herbs. Only this can restore the unique eco-system of the particular area.
9) References
Agarwal S.K., Tiwari S. & Dubey P.S. 1996. Biodiversity and Environment. Published by : S.B. Nangia, A.P.H. Publishing Co., Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002, ISBN:81-7024-740-3.
Bhatia, C.L. 1984. Eucalyptus In India - Its Status and Research needs, Indian Forester, 110 (2) pp.91-96.
Climate-Data.org : For Amarkantak http://en.climate-data.org/location/173884/
Group Reports, 1993. Group I: Bio-physical and Environmental Impacts of Eucalyptus Plantations. In: Proceedings, Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus, Vol.1. Edited by M. Kashio & K. White, http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac777e/ac777e0a.htm#bm10.1
Miller, R. 2012. Eucalyptus Shallow Root Danger, http://homeguides.sfgate.com/eucalyptus-shallow-root-danger-43715.html
Palanna R.M. 1996. Eucalyptus in India. In: Reports submitted to the Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus, Vol.2. Edited by M. Kashio & K. White, http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac772e/ac772e06.htm
Ram Prasad, 1996. Reclamation & Revegetation of Bauxite and Coal Mined Areas in M.P. In “Biodiversity and Environment”. Preview available in https://books.google.co.in
Roy, D., Seshadri, S., Ghotge, S., Gupta, A., Deshpande, A., 1981. Planning The Environment, based on a report submitted to Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi in January 1981. http://vidyaonline.org/dl/shahdol.pdf
Shyam Sundar, S. 1984. Forest Development and Eucalyptus controversy in Karnataka, Workshop on Eucalyptus plantation, Indian Statistical Institute, Bangalore.
Tourism-Amarkantak : http://anuppur.nic.in/en/WEBPAGES/tourism/amarkantak.htm
Wiki-Amarkantak : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarkantak
Wiki-Eucalyptus : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eucalyptus
ZSI, 2011. Critically Endangered Animal Species of India, Zoological Survey of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/public-information/critically_endangered_booklet.pdf
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